In the nineteenth century, Latin America underwent significant political transformations as it transitioned from colonial rule to independent nation-states. This period saw the expansion and flourishing of new forms of participation in politics, including civil society organizations and a growing press. These developments contributed to the legitimization of political power and the construction of citizenship. However, social and racial gaps between elites and the many remained a persistent reality, leading to ongoing debates over inclusion and exclusion from the polity.Recent scholarship has focused on the role of citizenship in these political transformations, highlighting the importance of inclusive forms of participation and negotiation. While these developments did not necessarily lead to democratization, they are inherently relevant to the historical process of nation-building. This literature opens up a rich and complex field of inquiry, offering insights into the ongoing evolution of political power in Latin America.